(Economist) The race is on to build the world’s most complex machine

Few would expect the future of artificial intelligence (AI) to depend on Eindhoven, a quiet Dutch town. Yet just beyond its borders sits the headquarters of ASML, the only company that makes the machines, known as lithography tools, needed to produce cutting-edge AI chips. ASML’s latest creation is a 150-tonne colossus, around the size of two shipping containers and priced at around $350m. It is also the most advanced machine for sale.

The firm’s expertise has placed it at the centre of a global technology battle. To prevent China from building whizzy AI chips, America has barred ASML from selling its most advanced gear to Chinese chipmakers. In response, China is pouring billions of dollars into building homegrown alternatives. Meanwhile, Canon, a Japanese rival, is betting on a simpler, cheaper technology to loosen ASML’s grip. Yet unlike software, where industry leadership can shift in a matter of months, success in lithography is a slow-moving race measured in decades. Overtaking ASML won’t be easy. At stake is control of the machine that will shape the future of computing, AI and technology itself.

ASML’s most advanced machine is mind-boggling. It works by firing 50,000 droplets of molten tin into a vacuum chamber. Each droplet takes a double hit—first from a weak laser pulse that flattens it into a tiny pancake, then from a powerful laser that vaporises it. The process turns each droplet into hot plasma, reaching nearly 220,000°C, roughly 40 times hotter than the surface of the Sun, and emits light of extremely short wavelength (extreme ultraviolet, or EUV). This light is then reflected by a series of mirrors so smooth that imperfections are measured in trillionths of a metre. The mirrors focus the light onto a mask or template that contains blueprints of the chip’s circuits. Finally the rays bounce from the mask onto a silicon wafer coated with light-sensitive chemicals, imprinting the design onto the chip.

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ASML’s tools are indispensable to modern chipmaking. Rivals are now racing to dethrone the company—but it won’t be easy https://t.co/WNWBencgIo

— The Economist (@TheEconomist) March 14, 2025